Pamela E. Oliver
Professor of Sociology

Soc 924 – Organizations, External Resources, and Professionalization

The major themes of this section are issues of resource mobilization, external resources, professionalization, and the shifting forms of movement organizations across time. Note: The selection of articles has not been updated recently. These articles mostly show the issues that were emphasized in the 1990s.

Key issues: What kinds of resources constrain/impact social movements? What kinds of organizations carry social movements? How does organizational form vary with movement type or environmental constraints?

Index

Resource Mobilization Theory: “Classic” articles

  1. John McCarthy and Mayer Zald. The Trend of Social Movements in America: Professionalization and Resource Mobilization. (1973) This is the original. It is more subtle than you would think from citations to it. Fifty plus years later, it is an interesting historical retrospective. The “parts” are arbitrarily broken, but there are different themes in each section. It is exploring reasons for the intense movement mobilization of the 1960s. Part 1 reviews and dismisses a variety of explanations focuses on a “participation revolution” and concludes that the key is more students with discretionary time. Part 2 is most linked to issues of organization, with a lot of emphasis on money for movements, professional activists and movement careers. There is also a short section on the increasing use of mass media by movements. Part 3 continues the professionalization theme and asks whether movements will be shaped by the interests of those with money. Copy posted at U Michigan  Electronic Copy posted on this site (a less good copy)
  2. John McCarthy and Mayer Zald. “Resource Mobilization and Social Movements.” American Journal of Sociology 82 (May, 1977): 1212-1242. (Lots of hypotheses derived from notion that only resources matter; some are clearly wrong, others are quite useful. This is the article that people cited as claiming that only resources matter.) Stable URL link to JSTOR: From the introduction: “The resource mobilization perspective adopts as one of its underlying problems Olson’s (1965) challenge: since social movements deliver collective goods, few individuals will ‘on their own’ bear the costs of working to obtain them. Explaining collective behavior requires detailed attention to the selection of incentives, cost-reducing mechanisms or structures, and career benefits that lead to collective behavior (see, especially, Oberschall 1973).”

 General overviews of organizational issues

  1. Social Movements : An Introduction. Donatella Della Porta and Mario Diani. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. Chapter 6. Social Movements and Organizational Form. 2020 edition begins with diversity of organizational forms, including professional, transnational, mass protest, grassroots; from organizations to organizing, modes of coordination, addresses issue of whether technology has supplanted organization. Discusses changes within organizations and in fields of inter-organizational relations.
  2. J. Craig Jenkins. “Resource Mobilization Theory and the Study of Social Movements.” Annual Review of Sociology 9 (1983): 527-53. An excellent review of the field as of 1982.
  3. In the 2019 Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Social Movements (edited by David A. Snow, , Sarah A. Soule, , Hanspeter Kriesi, , and Holly J. McCammon)
    1. Edward Walker & Andrew Martin. Chapter 9. “Social Movement Organizations” Topics: General overview of issues about organizations; enduring value of resource mobilization theory for understanding movement support, resource partitioning, division of labor, mobilizing structures; consideration of how internet technologies are transforming mobilization; field theory approaches to understanding organizations; cultural processes within organizations; concluding summaries. In the 2019 Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Social Movements (edited by David A. Snow, , Sarah A. Soule, , Hanspeter Kriesi, , and Holly J. McCammon)
    2. Bob Edwards, John D. McCarthy, Dane Mataic, Chapter 4. “The Resource Context of Social Movements.” In the 2019 Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Social Movements (edited by David A. Snow, , Sarah A. Soule, , Hanspeter Kriesi, , and Holly J. McCammon) Resource types: material, human, social-organizational, cultural, moral. Mechanisms of access: self-production, aggregation, cooptation, patronage. Exchange relations and source constraints. Recent research on resource mobilization since 2004, reviews trends in the literature include rigorous methods, emphasis on organizational and national contexts, integrating RM with other approaches.
    3. Fabio Rojas and Brayden King. Chapter 11. “How Social Movements Interact with Organizations and Fields: Protest, Institutions, and Beyond.” Stresses that organization theory and movement theory have influenced each other. Provides a history of understanding of organizations and movements. How organizational scholars adopted ideas from movement theory to understand how organizations work and especially how they change. How movements change organizations as a political process. Field theory approaches. Beyond field theory emphasizes ways in which movements are not necessarily outside organizations and how movements may work with organizations rather than against them. Suggests a new typology for relation between movements and organizations. In the 2019 Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Social Movements (edited by David A. Snow, , Sarah A. Soule, , Hanspeter Kriesi, , and Holly J. McCammon)
    4. Amin Ghaziani and Kelsy Kretschmer. Chapter 12. “Infighting and Insurrection”. Focuses on conflicts within movements. Infighting is conflict that does not break up the movement; people stay in relation. Argues it can be either destructive or constructive. Literature review is organized by classical statements of the issues, conditional tradition that recognizes the conflict is not always destructive, and the causal tradition that focuses on when and why conflict occurs. In the 2019 Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Social Movements (edited by David A. Snow, , Sarah A. Soule, , Hanspeter Kriesi, , and Holly J. McCammon)
    5. Megan Brooker and David Meyer. Chapter 14. Coalitions and the Organization of Collective Action. Coalitions are important. Defining and differentiating coalitions. Types of coalitions. Dimensions of variation: geographic, duration, organizational form. Coalitional emergence and dynamics, effects of political environment, ideological alignment, social ties, organizational structures and resources. Coalition outcomes, survival and dissipation. Movement and organizational changes, political outcomes. In the 2019 Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Social Movements (edited by David A. Snow, , Sarah A. Soule, , Hanspeter Kriesi, , and Holly J. McCammon)
  4. From the 2004 Blackwell Companion
    1. Morris, Aldon and Suzanne Staggenborg (2004). Leadership in Social Movements. The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements. D. A. Snow, S. A. Soule and H. Kriesi. Malden, MA and Oxford, UK, Blackwell Publishing: 171-196. Need to theorize leadership. Summary of history of literature. Social composition of leadership: who they are. Gender and leadership, inside and outside leaders. Cultural contexts for the emergence of leaders. Leadership and mobilization. Agency and structure in interaction. Leaders and framing, including institutions and mass media. Leadership and outcomes.
    2. Clemens, Elisabeth S. and Debra Minkoff (2004). Beyond the Iron Law: Rethinking the Place of Organizations in Social Movement Research. The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements. D. A. Snow, S. A. Soule and H. Kriesi. Malden, MA and Oxford, UK, Blackwell Publishing: 155-170. Interactions and how organizations are created and defined, not just question of oligarchy. Culture of interaction combined with anaysis of structure. Movements inside organizations. Also studies of org ecology. Adds up to an essay on different ways organizations in movements are handled in the literature..
    3. Edwards, Bob and D. McCarthy John (2004). Resources and Social Movement Mobilization. The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements. D. A. Snow, S. A. Soule and H. Kriesi. Malden, MA and Oxford, UK, Blackwell Publishing: 116-152. analysis of types of resources and mobilization issues, including organizations, people etc. This is a very broad synthesis that pulls together many different strands of argument and empirical research.
  5. Jo Freeman. “The Tyranny of Structurelessness.” A radical critique that circulated, first under a pseudonym, in the early 1970s. Organizations always have leaders, and if they are informal and unrecognized, they may also be unaccountable. A copy is posted on Jo Freeman’s web site.

Resources

  1. Cress, Daniel M.; Snow, David A. “Mobilization at the Margins: Resources, Benefactors, and the Viability of Homeless Social Movement Organizations” American Sociological Review; 1996, 61, 6, Dec, 1089-1109. Stable URL
  2. Eltantawy, Nahed and Julie B. Wiest (2011) “Social Media in the Egyptian Revolution: Reconsidering Resource Mobilization Theory. ” Social media as a resource
  3. Akbar Golhasani & Abbas Hosseinirad 2016 “The Role of Resource Mobilization Theory in Social Movement” in International Journal of Multicultural and Multireligious Understanding provide a short overview an overview by non-European scholars that stresses the value of formalizing & professionalizing while also offering some critiques; and cites a significant fraction of non-European sources. 

Funding Issues (including Cooptation)

  1. Herbert Haines. “Black Radicalization and the Funding of Civil Rights: 1957-1970″ MS 440-449. Social Problems 32: 31-43. 1984. Electronic Copy Focus is on changes in the capacity of moderate organizations to mobilize monetary resources from extramovement groups during periods in which other movement organizations are becoming increasingly radical.
  2. J. Craig Jenkins and Craig M. Eckert. “Channeling Black Insurgency: Elite Patronage and Professional Social Movement Organizations in the Development of the Black Movement.” American Sociological Review 51 (Dec. 1986): 812-829. Takes McAdam’s data and extends the series, nailing down the argument: elite money mostly went to moderates, did not fund the “revolution” Stable URL link to JSTOR:
  3. Oliver, P. E. and G. Marwell (1992). Mobilizing Technologies for Collective Action. Frontiers in Social Movement Theory. A. M. a. C. M. Mueller. New Haven, Yale University Press: 251-271. An analytic piece on fundraising and mobilizing volunteer labor. How the problems of getting money for professionalism or getting volunteers constrain the actions and goals of activists. Link to article copy
  4. Corrigall-Brown, C. (2016). “Funding for Social Movements.” Sociology Compass 10(4): 330-339. Abstract Funding is critical for social movements. Our understanding of the relationship between social movements and funders has been shaped by broader theories used to understand movement dynamics. This review examines our changing understanding of the role of funding for movements, paying particular attention to the relative costs and benefits of funding from different groups of actors, such as constituents, foundations, governments, and corporations. While these groups provide critical resources to movements, they can also potentially alter movements by channeling them into less contentious actions and more bureaucratized forms. I explore three current debates in the area of social movement funding. First, current work assesses the relationships of funding, particularly how the interactions between funders and funded groups shape the types of actions in which social movements can engage. Second, social movement funding is embedded within a larger context, and current work is attempting to better understand the role of this context by engaging in comparative research. Finally, debates surrounding the rising importance of corporate funding for movements focus on how these new streams of revenue could help (or hinder) social movement activities. Link to journal site for article
  5. Dana Fisher Activism, Inc. (link to online copy in UW library) based on interviews with canvassers argues that (a) social movements are outsourcing door-knocking to a paid canvass organization and (b) canvass organizations burn through idealistic young people and hurt the movement. If you don’t know, canvassers are paid employees who earn commissions on the donations they obtain.
    1. Op Ed by Dana Fisher that summarizes the argument. Ending rot in America’s grass roots. By: Fisher, Dana R., Christian Science Monitor, 08827729, 10/30/2006, Vol. 98, Issue 234
    2. article by her in the American Prospect that summarizes her argument, that canvassing has hurt progressive movements. Text file.
    3. A blog by Peter Levine discussing the book
    4. A blog by a canvass organization defending canvassing
  6. Edward T. Walker. author of the book Grassroots for Hire: Public Affairs Consultants in American Democracy. About how corporations are creating grassroots organizations to support their agendas.  A New York Times editorial written by Walker that summarizes the argument of the book Permalink
    1. Edward T. Walker has also written a Contexts article on this same subject (industry supporting “grassroots” groups that support industry agendas)
    2. Edward T. Walker “Privatizing Participation: Civic Change and the Organizational Dynamics of Grassroots Lobbying Firms.” American Sociological Review 74(1): 83-105. This article highlights the shifting boundaries between the public and private spheres in advanced capitalist societies through an examination of grassroots lobbying firms. These organizations, which became a fixture in U.S. politics in the 1970s and have grown in number and prominence since, subsidize public participation on behalf of corporations, industry groups, and associations using direct mail, telephoning, and by mobilizing members and stakeholders. I examine the dynamics of this organizational population—whose existence calls attention to broad transformations in civil society—with reference to dramatic growth in the organizational populations of civic and trade associations. Results, derived from a Generalized Estimating Equation panel regression of firm founding events across U.S. regions from 1972 to 2002, suggest that the increasing formal organization of civil society has supported the development of a field of organizations that subsidize participation. These organizations do so, however, in a manner that restricts the development of social capital and civic skills while augmenting the voice of private interests in public and legislative discourse. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] Jstor Link Copyright of American Sociological Review is the property of American Sociological Association
    3. Edward T Walker Industry-Driven. Contexts 9:2 https://doi.org/10.1525/ctx.2010.9.2.44 “Sociologists who study social movements know that grassroots organizing tactics, as social change tools, tend to be favored by institutional outsiders. But recent scholarship and developments in the health care debate suggest that these “weapons of the weak” are increasingly used by powerful insiders.” How businesses pay to support “grassroots” groups that support their interests.
  7. INCITE! The Revolution Will Not be Funded. A widely-cited edited collection by an organization of women and queer/trans people of color originally published in 2007. It critiques what they call the “non-profit industrial complex” and the ways external funding diverts movements. Link to a longer description and table of contents An ebook is available through the UW library.

Abeyance Structures

  1. Verta Taylor. 1989. “Social Movement Continuity: The Women’s Movement in Abeyance.” American Sociological Review 54 (Oct): 761-775. Drawing on social movement & organization theory, women’s rights activism from 1945 to the 1960s is examined, & the traditional view that the US women’s movement died after the suffrage victory in 1920 & was reborn in the 1960s is challenged. The discussion draws on documentary archival materials & data obtained via interviews with 57 women who were activists during the period considered. This case delineates a process in social movements that allows challenging groups to continue in nonreceptive political climates through social movement abeyance structures. Five characteristics of movement abeyance structures are identified & elaborated: temporality, purposive commitment, exclusiveness, centralization, & culture. It is argued that social movement abeyance structures provide organizational & ideological bridges between different upsurges of activism by the same challenging group. 83 References. Modified HA (Copyright 1990, Sociological Abstracts, Inc., all rights reserved.) Stable URL link to JSTOR:

 Movement Professionalization

  1. Suzanne Staggenborg. 1988. “The Consequences of Professionalization and Formalization in the Pro-Choice Movement.” American Sociological Review 53 (Aug): 585-606. Professionals and entrepreneurs are different roles. Entrepreneurs found movement organizations, professionals stabilize them. Comparative study of many organizations. Stable URL in JSTOR:
  2. Kleidman, Robert. Volunteer Activism and Professionalism in Social Movement Organizations. Social Problems 1994, 41, 2, May, 257-276. Professionals have varying effects on volunteer mobilization; need more complex concepts to understand issues. Electronic copy
  3. Pamela E. Oliver and Gerald Marwell. “Mobilizing Technologies For Collective Action.” In Aldon Morris and Carol Mueller, editors, Frontiers of Social Movement Theory. New Haven: Yale University Press. 1992. An analytic piece on fundraising and mobilizing volunteer labor. How the problems of getting money for professionalism or getting volunteers constrain the actions and goals of activists. Closely linked to the empirical articles in this section.Copy of paper.
  4. Dana Fisher. Author of Activism, Inc. about canvassing. This is a plain text copy of an article by her in the American Prospect that summarizes her argument, that canvassing has hurt progressive movements. Text file.
  5. Edward T. Walker. author of the book Grassroots for Hire: Public Affairs Consultants in American Democracy. About how corporations are creating grassroots organizations to support their agendas.  A New York Times editorial written by Walker that summarizes the argument of the book Permalink
  6. Edward T. Walker has also written a Contexts article on this same subject (industry supporting “grassroots” groups that support industry agendas)

 Organizational Characteristics and Nature of Mobilization

  1. John D. McCarthy. “Pro-Life and Pro-Choice Mobilization: Infrastructure Deficits and New Technologies.” In Mayer N. Zald and John D. McCarthy, eds., Social Movements in an Organizational Society. Paper written in the early 1980s. Pro-life depends on volunteers has relatively little money (but does have church support), pro-choice depends upon financial contributions from dispersed donors; linked to the different social structure of the two groups (church ties for pro-life, absence of ties for pro-choice). PDF
  2. Elisabeth S. Clemens. Organizational Repertoires and Institutional Change: Women’s Groups and the Transformation of U.S. Politics, 1890-1920. American Journal of Sociology 1993, 98, 4, Jan, 755-798. Because women couldn’t vote, they created new forms of politics leading to the educational lobbying system prominent today.PDF file Stable URL:
  3. Edwards, B. and S. Marullo (1995). “Organizational Mortality in a Declining Social Movement: The Demise of Peace Movement Organizations in the End of the Cold War Era.” American Sociological Review 60(6): 908-927. Factors affecting survival or demise. Stable URL
  4. McCarthy, John D.; Wolfson, Mark “Resource Mobilization by Local Social Movement Organizations: Agency, Strategy, and Organization in the Movement against Drinking and Driving” American Sociological Review; 1996, 61, 6, Dec, 1070-1088. Stable URL in JSTOR: Factors that affected organizational success.
  5. Pamela Oliver and Mark Furman. 1989. “Contradictions Between National and Local Organizational Strength: The Case of the John Birch Society.” International Social Movement Research 2: 155-177. Mobilizing action is local, mobilizing money is national. Different problems. Local groups require activists who do things, who are motivated by local projects, who get the satisfaction of doing something they believe in. National groups require professionals who can engage national political structures and, thus, the money to pay them. The “paper” members who give money to national organizations are not necessarily interested in local activism, and the local activists may resent giving money to national organizations. It is difficult for an organization to be strong at both levels.  Article PDF

Leadership

  1. Marshall Ganz and Elizabeth McKenna. Chapter 10. “Bringing Leadership Back In.” Begins with a critique of some literature on leadership types, then focuses on what leaders do, distinguishing outward-facing and inward-facing leadership. Topics include attention to informal versus formal leadership, Alternative framework: leadership is conceptualized as accepting responsibility to enable others to achieve a shared purpose; a set of practices. Leadership is most important in encounters with uncertainty. Importance of five leadership practices: relationship building, storytelling, strategizing, structuring, action. Discussion of each of these. In the 2019 Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Social Movements (edited by David A. Snow, , Sarah A. Soule, , Hanspeter Kriesi, , and Holly J. McCammon) Link to UW Library (requires NetID)
  2. Ganz, M. (2000). “Resources and Resourcefulness: Strategic Capacity in the Unionization of California Agriculture, 1959-1966.” American Journal of Sociology 105(4): 1003-1062. Addresses the question of why the insurgent United Farm Workers (UFW) succeeded, while its better-resourced rival – the Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee – failed, in the unionization of agriculture in CA, 1959-1966. Explanations relying on altered political opportunity structures or resources, accounts of Cesar Chavez’s charismatic leadership, or descriptions of UFW strategy fail to identify mechanisms for creating effective strategy. By analyzing leadership, organizational influences on actors’ choices, & their interaction in the environment, it is shown here that greater access to salient information, heuristic facility, & motivation generated more effective strategy. Differences in strategic capacity can explain how resourcefulness can compensate for lack of resources, why some new organizations can overcome the “liability of newness,” & how reorganizational focal moments may lead to a social movement. 2 Tables, 1 Figure, 199 References. Adapted from the source document
  3. Andrews, K. T., et al. (2010). “Leadership, Membership, and Voice: Civic Associations That Work.” American Journal of Sociology 115(4): 1191-1242. Why are some civic associations more effective than others? The authors introduce a multidimensional framework for analyzing the effectiveness of civic associations in terms of public recognition, member engagement, and leader development. Using original surveys of local Sierra Club organizations and leaders, the authors assess prevailing explanations in organization and movement studies alongside a model highlighting leadership and internal organizational practices. Although available resources and favorable contexts matter, the core findings show that associations with more committed activists, that build organizational capacity, that carry out strong programmatic activity, and whose leaders work independently, generate greater effectiveness across outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
  4. Robnett, B. (1996). “African-American Women in the Civil Rights Movement, 1954-1965: Gender, Leadership, and Micromobilization.” American Journal of Sociology 101(6): 1661-1693. Stable URL Through an analysis of gender in the civil rights movement, this article illustrates that the conceptualization of social movement leadership requires expansion. This study concludes that an intermediate layer of leadership is critical to the micromobilization of a social movement. This intermediate layer provides a bridge (1) between the social movement organization(s) and potential adherents and constituents, (2) between prefigurative and strategic politics, and (3) between potential leaders and those already predisposed to movement activity. The latter illustrates that mobilization does not always occur in a linear fashion (i.e., formal leaders mobilize and recruit participants). In the case of the civil rights movement, this intermediate layer of leadership was the primary area for women’s leadership. ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR Copyright of American Journal of Sociology Jstor Link
  5. Suh, Doowon (2003). “Leadership Effectiveness and Interorganizational Solidarity Formation.” Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change 24: 189-228. This article uses comparative, empirical research to analyze organizational network formation (here, networks connecting unions, not interpersonal networks) by the attempts of Korean white-collar unions to intensify interunion solidarity. Networks are created by organizers’ tactical efforts — based on participants’ endorsement — to elevate the collective power of their movements. Successful networks feature moderate organizational leadership centralization & intervention in the activities of discrete unions. Such leadership best promotes a democratic network structure & directs coalition efforts — two, mutually conflicting, requirements for effective networks. Excessive leadership centralization & decentralization equally attenuate network cohesion & effectiveness. The former impedes internal organizational democracy, whereas the latter hinders interorganizational coalition.

Multi-Organizational Fields

  • Soule, Sarah A. and Brayden G. King (2008). “Competition and Resource Partitioning in Three Social Movement Industries.” American Journal of Sociology 113(6): 1568-1610. Drawing hypotheses from resource mobilization and resource partitioning theories (RMT and RPT), this article examines how interorganizational competition and social movement industry (SMI) concentration affect the level of tactical and goal specialization of protest organizations associated with the peace, women’s, and environmental movements. Additionally, the article examines how specialization affects the survival of these organizations. By and large, the findings are commensurate with the expectations of RMT and RPT. Results indicate that interorganizational competition leads to more specialized tactical and goal repertoires. Concentration in the SMI also leads to specialization, but this is only true for less established organizations. Results also indicate that tactical and goal specialization decrease organizational survival, unless the industry is highly concentrated.Rucht 2004 Blackwell Companion. inter-organizational relationships. 
  • Rucht, Dieter (2004). Movement Allies, Adversaries and Third Parties. The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements. D. A. Snow, S. A. Soule and H. Kriesi. Malden, MA and Oxford, UK, Blackwell Publishing: 197-216. Need to understand movements relationally. Abandon two-party image. Multiorganizational fields, including bystander publics, third parties, mediators. Chart of reference groups of SMs. Issues of cooperation, competition and conflict within movement alliances. Also brief discussion of adversaries, mediators and audiences.
  • P. Bert Klandermans. 1990. “Linking the ‘Old’ and the ‘New’ Movement Networks in the Netherlands. In Russell J. Dalton and Manfred Kuechler, eds., Challenging the Political Order, pages 122-136. SMOs emerge from existing multi-org fields; continuity. alliance fields, shifting coalitions. conflict system, us vs them toward counter-movements. Drain resources, restrict opportunities; at some point have to bargain. Data on Dutch peace movement: extensive contact with and overlapping membership in other orgs and left parties. conflict system with right parties.
  • Barkey, K. and R. Van Rossem (1997). “Networks of Contention: Villages and Regional Structure in the Seventeenth-Century Ottoman Empire.” American Journal of Sociology 102(5): 1345-1382. Peasant contention resulted from the position of the village in the regional structure, with village-level organization providing the means for contention. Stable URL
  • Diani, M. and G. Lodi (1988). Three in One: Currents in the Milan Ecology Movement. From Structure To Action: Comparing Social Movement Research Across Cultures. B. Klandermans, H. Kriesi and S. Tarrow. Greenwich, Conn., JAI Press: 103-124. Argues that the three branches of the Milan ecology movement were present throughout the entire period, but the ideology of the movement as a whole shifted as the mix of the branches shifted, with some gaining people and becoming more active, while others lost people and became less active. But individual people rarely changed their foci. Three in one  

Other

  • Kniss, Fred and Gene Burns (2004). Religious Movements. The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements. D. A. Snow, S. A. Soule and H. Kriesi. Malden, MA and Oxford, UK, Blackwell Publishing: 694-715. 3 types of questions: 1) New religions: causes and consequences. 2) Movements within religions. 3) Religion as a factor in movements. Also levels of analysis: cultural/ideological, organizational, macropolitical. 1) Studies of religious movements: classical studies, “new” religions, fundamentalism, immigrant religions; 2) Movements within religions, e.g. gay rights or feminism or abortion within religion. Notes that if religion is autonomous from the state, religious organizations can be homes for movements. 3) Religion and otehr movements. Problem of difference bewteen leaders and followers in tracing impact of ideas. Makes the point of the contrast between white and black evangelicals. Organizations as homes. Also religions and the state.